The Battle of Adwa in 1896 is considered one of the most important events in
modern African history. Its significance has been studied by numerous scholars most
often in response to Italy’s failed attempt to secure Ethiopia as a protectorate. The Battle
of Adwa counters the prevailing interpretation revealing that this limited framework
minimizes the true significance of the battle and its role in world history. Editors Paulos
Mikias and Getachew Metaferia argue, that a phenomenon such as Adwa is a complex
nexus of various historical processes with wide-ranging but as yet not fully explored
meanings. Their work, featuring an introduction, prologue, and nine solid chapters,
dissects Adwa as a social, political, national, religious, and military event broadening its
scope to begin a new evaluation of this African victory.
The prologue indicates how this story affects the past, present and future. It
places Ethiopia’s origins in ancient history and the Bible. The editors link each of the
historical ancient Ethiopia, including the Axumite Empire of Ezana, the Christian state
of Zagwe, and the Solomonian Empire that traces its lineage from King Solomon and the
Queen of Sheba, to the emerging modern nation. This approach solidifies both context
and contacts within world history. By focusing on the vastness of the territory that will
become modern Ethiopia, they establish that these were people of different ethnic and
religious affiliations that were still in the process of unification at the time of the victory
at Adwa.
Emperors Tewodros II and Yohannes IV are central to the rise of Menelik II
who will become the nation’s ruler shortly before the war with Italy. Both Tewodros,
who ruled from 1855 to 1872, and Yohannes, who ruled from Tewodros’ death to 1889,
were frequently engaged in military conflicts with regional rivals and European forces.
Each died in battles that were influenced by European powers. Menelik, Yohannes
successor, was a beneficiary of those conflicts. His ambitions to become emperor
encouraged him to challenge the authority of both men by withholding allegiances and
entertaining overtures from British and Italian envoys to gain their support.
The Italians, who like the British and French, sought a colonial empire in the
Horn of Africa approached King Menelik during Yohannes reign. Before the emperor’s
death, Count Pietro Antonelli and Menelik agreed in principle to a document that would
become the Treaty of Wuchalé. The document had numerous points, with the most
important being the debated section authorizing Italy to be Ethiopia’s agent in the
European world. Essentially, this made Ethiopia an Italian protectorate. Emperor
Menelik signed both an Italian and Amharic version of this treaty in 1889.
Theodore Vestal builds the case for the Battle of Adwa by recalling Italy’s
involvement in Ethiopia in Chapter One: “Reflections On The Battle Of Adwa And Its
Significance For Today.” He suggests that the Italians underestimated Ethiopia’s rulers
and European support for the treaty. In fact, Vestal sees Italy’s missteps as the cause for
the war. While Italy’s colonization of Eritrea was minimally accepted, the expansion of
the Italian role within local Ethiopian affairs was not. Military actions “fuelled the anger
of the Ethiopian masses and leaders alike, who viewed the invasion as a threat to their
nation’s sovereignty.” (26) The forthcoming war can be seen as the foundation for true
nationalism and the advent of the modern Ethiopian state. While the Berlin Conference
establishes policies for non-military action between European parties in their quest for
colonial empires, Vestal shows that it did not constitute uniform support for each
nation’s colonial desires. In 1892, he hints that Britain supported Italy in Ethiopia more
to keep France out of the region rather than to support Italian imperialism and national
development. Additionally, the flaws in the Treaty of Wuchale’ were known before the
war and it also raised the concerns of European competitors. The Russians, for example,
denounced the treaty in 1894, and shortly afterwards Tsar Nicholas sent the Ethiopians
rifles and ammunition.
Yet the key point in the chapter was, not only did the military victory humiliate
the Italians, it countered Italian comments that the Ethiopians were barbarians. Ethiopia
went to great lengths to be fair in a difficult situation. Before the war, Menelik repaid the
loans provided by the treaty, and afterwards allowed the Italians safe passage out of
Ethiopia. Further, Vestal argues that Menelik wanted peace and did not pursue the
Italians and allowed them to remain in Eritrea.
While installing national pride and unity, Menelik’s victory did have a price.
His failure to remove the Italians from Eritrea became one of the nation’s greatest
problems. It set the tone for the hostile relationships between the two regions which most
see as part of Ethiopia.
Similar themes are echoed in the next chapter, “The Battle of Adwa: The
Historic Victory of Ethiopia over European Colonialism.” In examining Italy’s interests
in African colonization, Paulos Milkias notes the similarities in the development of the
two countries during the nineteenth century. However, he makes the obvious point that
Italy used colonization as part of its unification process.
This chapter does an excellent job of analyzing the famed Treaty of Wuchalé
and how it led to the Italian-Ethiopian war. Milkias places the conflict within cultural
values as well as diplomatic ones. The deception in paragraph XIX of the treaty, which
has a different meaning in Italian than it does in Amharic, illustrates the immorality of
the Italians. Not only did Count Antonelli betray Menelik’s trust, the entire affair reveals
the alleged superiority that the Italians believed they had over their African allies. This
racial superiority is compounded as Menelik discovers that many of the European
nations, including England and Germany, honored the treaty despite being made aware
of its improper wording.
Menelik had no choice but to dissolve the treaty in February 1893. In the
process he and Empress Taytu forced Count Antonelli to reveal his attempt to deceive
the Ethiopian ruler. While the Ethiopians pressed for peace, they also prepared for war.
The Italians offered another treaty on January 18, 1896. However, this was a more
stringent one with the cession of Tigray and more formal protectorate status. Again, the
Ethiopians refused. When the war began, it was solely because the Italians had to save
national pride and its place in the European community.
Milkias offers pages of details about the battle and the resolve of the Ethiopians
to save their homeland. Some 20,000 of the Ethiopian 90,000 troops fought without guns,
yet they defeated a superior European army causing a loss of nearly 70% of its troops.
Ethiopian women, led by Empress Taytu also played a role in the battle. The women
provided water and medical care to the troops, and Taytu led her own forces in the
course of the fighting.
In conclusion, Milkias posits that the battle of Adwa is important because it was
“a victory for the underdog, a victory for right over wrong.” (37) He wrote: “they
decisively defeated an invading European army and forced the architects of the Berlin
Conference (who had carved up Africa among themselves, like a birthday cake) to
formally acknowledge the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ethiopia.” (88)
Furthermore, it was both the “birth and culmination of the struggle for freedom of the
peoples of the Third World…sending out the message for self respecting human beings,
it is infinitely better to die on one’s feet than to live on one’s knees.” (88)
Chapter Three, Dejazmach Zewde Gabre-Selassie’s “Continuity and
Discontinuity in Menelik’s Foreign Policy,” …[discusses] a new foundation by critically
examining Menelik’s entanglements with local rulers including Emperor Yohannes and
Europeans, especially the Italians….Menelik emerges skillful and lucky in his
endeavors…. Following his coronation, Menelik continues the pattern of secret
diplomacy, but does so with both local rulers and European powers. The chapter gives
additional credit to Empress Taytu who plays a role in these diplomatic missions. The
treaty changes the course of these actions, forcing Menelik to appeal more to Ethiopia’s
local rulers. Menelik’s ultimate victories over the Italians rests on his ability to get these
rulers who were interested in gaining their own power to turn against foreign interests
and stand solely with him. This coalition wins two key victories leading to Adwa. At
Adwa, the victory not only creates the ideology for Ethiopian independence, but for
Ethiopian nationalism. The great victory also ignites the “scar of Adwa” that will haunt
Italy for four decades.
Harold Marcus’ essay returns to the questions of racial discourse that are an
integral part of the volume. It is a short but influential piece….His focus explores a
sampling of European writings. The sources indicate differences in religion, skin color,
and intelligence. While many found the Ethiopians lacking in cultural values, it is
important to note that after the battle, impressions of the Ethiopians had a marked
improvement. Yet, Marcus concludes, “…even in its hour of greatest triumph, Ethiopia
was not afforded full equality.” (237)
Chapter Four, “Adwa 1896: Who Was Civilized And Who Was Savage?” by
Negussay Ayele continues to explore the concept of European racism found in the first
two chapters. Ayele examines racism used to justify colonization, the war with Ethiopia,
and continued European resentment of Africans after Adwa. It places Adwa at the end of
centuries of European and African struggles as it serves as a turning point in these
confrontations. While viewing many of the issues considered in the first two chapters, it
adds useful and needed details to enhance the immorality of the Italians and the Treaty of
Wuchalé. Ayele provides the treaty’s twenty provisions and carefully scrutinizes the
flaws and controversial points in the document. He also covers the magnanimity of
Menelik following the war to show that the Ethiopians were the civilized party in this
defining chapter of African history.
Getachew Metaferia essay comprises chapter five. “Ethiopia: A Bulwark Against
European Colonialism and its Role in the Pan-African Movement,” places Ethiopia in
the center of Pan-Africanism that emerges in the late nineteenth century. He convincingly
argues the connections between Ethiopia and numerous political movements in modern
history. His work examines the historical images of Ethiopia, the growth of Pan-African
movements throughout the Diaspora, Ethiopia’s ties to socio-political and religious
movements, and current prospects of Ethiopianism. In many respects, this is the best
chapter of the work as it offers rich examples that are hard to refute. Metaferia illustrates
how Menelik became a role model for those in the Diaspora. He sparked the first
legitimate invitation for Disaporans to come back home (to Africa). This connection
enamored blacks to support Ethiopia when Mussolini attacked it during World War II,
and led to the enthusiastic support of Haile Selassie during and after the war. Selassie,
too, invited those in the Diaspora to return to Africa and was a spiritual champion for
African independence. Additionally, Selassie convened the Pan African conference in
1958 and founded the Organization of African Unity in 1963.
In Chapter Six, Richard Pankhurst uses the Times of London to gauge European
reaction to the Battle of Adwa. “British Reactions to The Battle of Adwa; as Illustrated
by the Times of London for 1896,” is another examination of the persistence of European
racism and concepts of superiority to justify colonial designs. Pankhurst introduces the
material by focusing on a 1895 Times article suggesting that the French were secretly
willing to support the Ethiopians over the Italians. Though the alleged pact was
denounced by the Paris Temps, the Times acknowledged that while the French were not
happy with Italy as a rival, they would not side with an African nation over an European
one.
However, once the war began, the attitude towards the Italians began to waver.
The trickery of the treaty was noted, but Italy was still favored “qualified only by a
criticism of Italian tactical mistakes.” (223) Menelik’s honorable actions earned the
Ethiopians a distinction between itself and other African nations. (222) In such a light,
the paper admitted “Ethiopia was a civilized power both in her methods of warfare and
in her diplomacy.” (223)
Pankhurst stresses that the British periodical was concerned with the actions of
other European nations to protect its nation’s investment in Africa. It was fearful of
French involvement throughout the continent and Russian support for the Ethiopians.
Yet, when the Italians published a Green Book that blamed its failure on the lack of
support from the British, the Times had to respond. Pankhurst concludes that the British
paper insisted that it was loyal to the Italians as the two countries were related by
common interests “too deep and solid to be affected by petty questions in remote parts of
Africa.” (227) Such a statement, he concluded revealed the true motives of the paper and
British government.
“Contemporary Ethiopia in the Context of the Battle of Adwa, 1896,”is the title
of Chapter Eight. In this section, Mesfin Araya posits “Adwa represents a bold critique
on the current ethnic politics in Ethiopia” and “Adwa has its own contradictions which
still plague Ethiopia; contradictions whose resolution is also contained in Adwa itself.”
(240) At the heart of this chapter is the spirit of Adwa to sustain the Ethiopians during
the Italian occupation of World War II, the role of the ruling class to unify during Adwa
leading to both national and class unity, and Menelik’s failure to pursue the Italians into
Eritrea and eventually attempt to unify this section with the rest of the nation. Araya
argues that the Ethiopians did not compliment the “military Adwa” with the “intellectual
Adwa.”(225) As a result, the nation evolved into a socialist government that continues to
maintain a stranglehold on its true development. According to Araya, the nation failed
to apprehend its realities in ways that identify the real aspirations and “possibilities
embedded in their life circumstances.” (225)
This concept blends nicely into Chapter Nine: “Ethiopian History and Critical
Theory: The Case of Adwa.” Maimire Mennasemay’s ideological essay serves as a
fitting conclusion. He begins by challenging the idea that the ”uniqueness of Adwa lies
not in the defeat of a European power by an African country, but in the fact that Adwa is,
to use Alain Badiou’s term, “a Truth-Event,” a singular event that exceeds the
circumstances out of which it emerges such that what appears impossible becomes real,
giving rise to radically new political problems.” (253) This approach considers collective
memory and critical theory to fully understand Adwa. He urges readers to look beyond
Eurocentric analysis of events, especially Marxist models. In many ways he is contesting
the current state of Ethiopia as well as the European context for Adwa. Instead he
suggests that Adwa is an unfinished battle tied to the quest for national unity and
freedom and equality.
Milkias and Metaferia have compiled an impressive volume. It is filled with
important information and makes for a great read. Many of the chapters read as if they
were written solely for this collection and at points it flows easily from one selection to
the next. …
The strength of the collection rests in its ability to visualize the multiple
meanings of Adwa. As highlighted in chapter nine, Adwa is an internal and external
event. Adwa elevated Menelik and Taytu into national heroes and world icons. The
treaty illustrated how Europeans underestimated the intelligence and global awareness of
African peoples. It changed the course of Ethiopian history because it stemmed the flow
of European colonization, and gave birth to the world’s only true independent black
nation.
For generations of Africans born after 1896, on the continent and throughout the
Diaspora, this battle represents the spiritual victory of black people over the forces of
evil. It gave hope to the generation of those fighting against colonialism and for freedom
in Africa, in the Caribbean, and the rest of the Third World. Adwa set the stage for the
New Negro, Negritude, Pan African, and Black Power movements. And in many
respects, the spirit of Adwa contributed to the success of the American Civil Rights
Movement.
Editor’s Note – The above was extracted from The Battle of Adwa: Reflections on Ethiopia’s Historic
Victory Against European Colonialism,”
Edited by Paulos Milkias and Getachew Metaferia.
New York: Algora Publishing, 2005
xi-320pp. and maps.
Reviewed in Horn of Africa Journal, Rutgers University
Reviewer: Dr. Leslie Wilson
Professor of History
Montclair State University
